Industrijska revolucija – razlika između verzija

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[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Watt steam engine]]. The [[steam engine]], made of iron and fueled primarily by [[coal]], propelled the Industrial Revolution in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] and the world.<ref name="industrial"/>]]
[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Watt steam engine]]. The [[steam engine]], made of iron and fueled primarily by [[coal]], propelled the Industrial Revolution in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] and the world.<ref name="industrial"/>]]
== Work in progress ==
== Work in progress ==
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the [[standard of living]] for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="Lectures on Economic Growth"/><ref name="Feinstein2014">{{cite journal|last=Feinstein|first=Charles|title=Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution|journal=Journal of Economic History|date=September 1998|volume=58|issue=3|pages=625–58|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4123540|accessdate=6 May 2014|doi=10.1017/s0022050700021100}}</ref><ref name="SzreterMooney2014">{{cite journal|author=Szreter & Mooney|title=Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities|journal=The Economic History Review|date=February 1998|volume=51|issue=1|page=104|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0289.00084/abstract|accessdate=6 May 2014|doi=10.1111/1468-0289.00084|last2=Mooney}}</ref>
Industrijska revolucija obeležava značajnu istorijsku prektretnicu; skoro svaki aspekt dnevnog života je pod njenim uticajem na izvestan način. Specifično, prosečni prihod i veličina populacije su počele da manifestuju ranije neviđeni stepen konstantnog rasta. Neki economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the [[standard of living]] for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="Lectures on Economic Growth"/><ref name="Feinstein2014">{{cite journal|last=Feinstein|first=Charles|title=Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution|journal=Journal of Economic History|date=September 1998|volume=58|issue=3|pages=625–58|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4123540|accessdate=6 May 2014|doi=10.1017/s0022050700021100}}</ref><ref name="SzreterMooney2014">{{cite journal|author=Szreter & Mooney|title=Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities|journal=The Economic History Review|date=February 1998|volume=51|issue=1|page=104|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0289.00084/abstract|accessdate=6 May 2014|doi=10.1111/1468-0289.00084|last2=Mooney}}</ref>


The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and spread to Western Europe and North America within a few decades.<ref name="Harvnb|Landes|1969">{{Harvnb|Landes|1969}}</ref> The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.<ref name="revolution"/><ref name="google1"/><ref name="Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution"/><ref name="lorenzen"/> [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern [[capitalism|capitalist]] economy,<ref name="The Industrial Revolution"/> while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita [[economic growth]] in capitalist economies.<ref name="The Industrial Revolution ''Past and Future''"/> Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants<ref name="ReviewOfCambridge"/> and fire.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and spread to Western Europe and North America within a few decades.<ref name="Harvnb|Landes|1969">{{Harvnb|Landes|1969}}</ref> The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.<ref name="revolution"/><ref name="google1"/><ref name="Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution"/><ref name="lorenzen"/> [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern [[capitalism|capitalist]] economy,<ref name="The Industrial Revolution"/> while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita [[economic growth]] in capitalist economies.<ref name="The Industrial Revolution ''Past and Future''"/> Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants<ref name="ReviewOfCambridge"/> and fire.

Verzija na datum 30 april 2015 u 19:06

Gvožđe i ugalj, 1855–60, slikara William Bell Scott ilustruje centralno mesto uglja i prerade gvožđa u industrijskoj revoluciji i masivnim inženjerskim projektima koje su omogućili.

Industrijska revolucija je bila tranzicija u nove proizvodne procese u periodu od oko 1760. do razdoblja između 1820. i 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools. It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.[1]

A Watt steam engine. The steam engine, made of iron and fueled primarily by coal, propelled the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and the world.[2]

Work in progress

Industrijska revolucija obeležava značajnu istorijsku prektretnicu; skoro svaki aspekt dnevnog života je pod njenim uticajem na izvestan način. Specifično, prosečni prihod i veličina populacije su počele da manifestuju ranije neviđeni stepen konstantnog rasta. Neki economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.[3][4][5]

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and spread to Western Europe and North America within a few decades.[6] The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.[7][8][9][10] GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy,[11] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.[12] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants[13] and fire. The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories.[14][15]

Parni stroj i njegovo značenje

Parna mašina Džejmsa Vata
James Watt

U 18. stoljeću je najveću manufakturnu proizvodnju imala Engleska. U njoj se povećavala potreba za tkaninama pa su proizvođači tkanina, radi povećavanja i ubrzavanja proizvodnje, primjenjivali izume u poduzećima.

U Engleskoj su proizvođači sve više ulagali novac u stvaranje novih izuma. No, najpoznatiji je bio izum parnog stroja. Njega je 1764. godine usavršio Škot James Watt. Pronalazak parnog stroja izazvao je veliki preokret u proizvodnji, odnosno revoluciju u prerađivačkim djelatnostima ili industriji. Manufakturna proizvodnja zamijenjena tvorničkim radom. Promjene izazvane primjenom parnog stroja nazivaju se prvom industrijskom revolucijom.

Primjena parnog stroja

Stivensonova Raketa
Robert Fulton

Novi parni strojevi su vrlo brzo pronašli primjenu u tvornicama, rudnicima i prometu. Strojevi koji su 'koristili vodenu paru kao pogonsko sredstvo morali su biti od čvrstog materijala - željeza. Zbog toga se naglo povećala potražnja za željeznom rudačom i ugljenom.

Amerikanac Robert Fulton je 1807. sagradio prvi parobrod koji je sa strane imao kotače s lopatama, a zvao je Clermont. Već 1819. godine američki je parobrod Savannah preplovio Atlantski ocean za 26 dana.

George Stephenson

Godine 1814. Englez George Stephenson' konstruirao je prvu parnu lokomotivu. U početku je išla 20 km/h, a kasnije i brže.

Zvala se Rocket (eng. raketa). Već 1825. u Engleskoj sagrađena je prva željeznička pruga u svijetu. Povezivala je gradove Stockton i Darlington. Prva željeznička pruga na hrvatskom prostoru sagrađena je u Međimurju 1860. godine.

Ostali važniji izumi i djela

Morzeov telegraf
Benjamin Franklin

U doba prve industrijske revolucije pojavili su se mnogi važni izumi koji se i danas koriste. Amerikanac Benjamin Franklin izumio je 1752. munjovod, djelotvornu zaštitu objekata od udara groma. Englez Sir Humphry Davy načinio je 1815. Davyevu svjetiljku koju su koristili rudari. Time je znatno smanjen broj nesreća u rudnicima. Slijepi francuski učitelj Louis Braille izumio je 1829. pismo za slijepce, poznatije kao Brailleovo pismo: slova brojevi i drugi znakovi na papiru označavaju se posebnim rasporedom ispupčenih točkica.

Amerikanac Samuel Morse izumio je 1837. telegraf i posebnu abecedu nazvanu Morseova abeceda koja se sastojala od dugih i kratkih signala za prenošenje poruka na velike udaljenosti.

Godine 1858. položen je prvi podmorski telegrafski kabel između Amerika i Europe. Francuz Louis Daguerre usavršio je 1939. fotografski aparat, a Amerikanac Charles Goodyear otkrio je vulkanizaciju, tj. način za dobivanje gume iz kaučuka.

Sljedeće godine zalijepljena je na pismo prva poštanska marka na svijetu. Ideju je dao Slovenac Lovrenc Košir, a proveo ju je Englez Rowland Hill. Godine 1854. pojavio se prvi bicikl s pedalama.

Građansko društvo

Tijekom druge polovice 18. i prve polovice 19. stoljeća odvijao se postupni prijelaz iz starog feudalnog u moderno građansko društvo. Na oblikovanje građanskog društva naročito je utjecala primjena parnog stroja u industriji, rudarstvu i prometu. Došlo je do povećanja broja tvornica. U njima je bilo zaposleno sve više radnika. Poslodavci su većinom pripadali građanskom sloju. U većini zapadnih europskih zemalja, osim Nizozemske i Engleske, građanstvo se do 19. stoljeća razvijalo unutar feudalnog sustava, ali nije sudjelovalo u upravljanju državom. Građansko društvo razvilo se i u SAD-u, gdje je sudjelovalo u političkom životu jer u Sjevernoj Americi nije bilo feudalaca.

Promjene na selu

U vrijeme prve industrijske revolucije došlo je do promjena na selu. Seljaci su ranije sve poslove radili ručno, a od početka 19. stoljeća u poljodjelsku se proizvodnju počinju uvoditi strojevi. Jedan od njih bila je žetelica. U poljodjelstvu zapadnih europskih zemalja i SAD-a polako se primjenjuju znanstvane spoznaje - osobito dostignuća kemije (npr. izum mineralnog umjetnoga gnojiva), a obavlja se i odabir boljeg sjemena i stoke. Time je došlo do višestrukog povećanja proizvodnje hrane. Sve te promjene u poljodjelstvu nazivamo agrarnom revolucijom. Uz to je u većini država tijekom 19. stoljeća došlo do ukidanja feudalnih odnosa na selu i jačanja privatnih poduzetnika u poljodjelstvu. Mnogi se seljaci nisu uspjeli održati u novim tržišnim uvjetima pa su ostali najamna radna snaga na velikim posjedima. Neki su se seljaci preseljavali u gradove i zapošljavali kao radnici u tvornicama.

Vidite još

Reference

  1. ↑ Landes 1969: str. 40
  2. ↑ Watt steam engine File: located in the lobby of into the Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineers of the UPM (Madrid)
  3. ↑ Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2002). Lectures on Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. str. 109–10. ISBN 978-0-674-01601-9. 
  4. ↑ Feinstein, Charles (September 1998). „Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution”. Journal of Economic History 58 (3): 625–58. DOI:10.1017/s0022050700021100. Pristupljeno 6 May 2014. 
  5. ↑ Szreter & Mooney; Mooney (February 1998). „Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities”. The Economic History Review 51 (1): 104. DOI:10.1111/1468-0289.00084. Pristupljeno 6 May 2014. 
  6. ↑ Landes 1969
  7. ↑ Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., p. 27 ISBN 0-349-10484-0
  8. ↑ Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01079-9 Read it
  9. ↑ Berg, Maxine; Hudson, Pat (1992). „Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution”. The Economic History Review (The Economic History Review, Vol. 45, No. 1) 45 (1): 24–50. DOI:10.2307/2598327. JSTOR 2598327. 
  10. ↑ Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006.
  11. ↑ Robert Lucas, Jr. (2003). „The Industrial Revolution”. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Pristupljeno 14 November 2007. »it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita incomes in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year.« 
  12. ↑ Lucas, Robert (2003). „The Industrial Revolution Past and Future”. »[consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century« 
  13. ↑ McCloskey, Deidre (2004). „Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004”. 
  14. ↑ Taylor, George Rogers. The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860. ISBN 978-0-87332-101-3.  No name is given to the transition years. The "Transportation Revolution" began with improved roads in the late 18th century.
  15. ↑ Hunter 1985

Literatura

  • Griffin, Emma (2010). Short History of the British Industrial Revolution. Palgrave. 
  • Robert C. Allen: The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective (New Approaches to Economic and Social History). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2009, ISBN 978-0-521-68785-0.
  • André Armengaud: Die Industrielle Revolution. In: Carlo M. Cipolla, Knut Borchard (Hrsg.): Europäische Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Band 3, Fischer, Stuttgart / New York, NY 1985, ISBN 3-437-40151-3.
  • T. S. Ashton: The Industrial Revolution 1760–1830. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1968.
  • T. S. Ashton (Hrsg.): Toynbee's Industrial Revolution. A Reprint of Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England. With a new Introduction. August M. Kelley, New York 1969.
  • Knut Borchardt: Die industrielle Revolution in Deutschland. Piper, München 1972, ISBN 3-492-00340-0.
  • Fernand Braudel: Sozialgeschichte des 15.-18. Jahrhunderts, 3. Band, Kapitel 6: Industrielle Revolution und Wachstum. Kindler, München 1986
  • Christoph Buchheim: Industrielle Revolutionen. dtv, München 1994, ISBN 3-423-04622-8.
  • Flurin Condrau: Die Industrialisierung in Deutschland. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2005, ISBN 3-534-15008-2.
  • N. F. R. Crafts: British Enonomic Growth during the Industrial Revolution. Clarendon, Oxford 1980, ISBN 0-19-873067-5.
  • Phyllis Dean: The First Industrial Revolution. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1982, ISBN 0-521-22667-8.
  • Arne Eggebrecht, Jens Flemming, Gert Meyer, Achatz v. Müller, Alfred Oppolzer, Akos Paulinyi, Helmuth Schneider: Geschichte der Arbeit. Vom alten Ägypten bis zur Gegenwart. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 1980, ISBN 3-462-01382-3 (im engeren Sinn zur Industriellen Revolution dort S. 193–302).
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  • Eric Hobsbawm: Europäische Revolutionen. 1789 bis 1848. Kindler, Zürich 1962; erneut 1978, ISBN 3-463-13715-1.
  • Eric Hobsbawm: Industrie und Empire. Britische Wirtschaftsgeschichte seit 1750. 2 Bände. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1969.
  • David S. Landes: Der entfesselte Prometheus. Technologischer Wandel und industrielle Entwicklung in Westeuropa von 1750 bis zur Gegenwart. (TB-Ausgabe) dtv, München 1983, ISBN 3-423-04418-7.
  • Peter Mathias / John A. Davis (Hrsg,): The First Industrial Revolutions. Basil Blackwell, Oxford 1990, ISBN 0-631-16039-6.
  • Jürgen Osterhammel: Die Verwandlung der Welt. Eine Geschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts. München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-58283-7.
  • Akoš Paulinyi: Industrielle Revolution. Vom Ursprung der modernen Technik. Reinbek 1989, ISBN 3-499-17735-8.
  • Toni Pierenkemper: Umstrittene Revolutionen. Die Industrialisierung im 19. Jahrhundert. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1996, ISBN 3-596-60147-9.
  • Sidney Pollard: The Genesis of Modern Management. A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. London 1965.
  • Dieter Ziegler: Die industrielle Revolution. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2005, ISBN 3-534-15810-5.

Spoljašnje veze

Izvor: https://sh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrijska_revolucija&oldid=12931683