Renesansa u Škotskoj – razlika između verzija

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Humanistički interes za širenje obrazovanja dijelili su protestantski reformatori, sa željom za bogobojaznim narodom umjesto obrazovanim građanima. ''[[First Book of Discipline]]'' je 1560. uspostavila plan za školu u svakoj parohiji, ali se pokazao finansijski nemogućim.<ref>R. A. Houston, ''Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|0-521-89088-8}}, str. 5.</ref> U gradovima stare škole su održavane, sa pjesničkim školama i više novih zadižbina koje su postale reformirane gramatičke škole ili obične parohijske škole. Škole je podržavala kombinacija crkvenih fondova, doprinosa od lokalnih [[heritor]]s ili gradskih vijeća, te od roditelja koji su to mogli platiti. Inspekcije su vršile [[Session (Presbyterian)|kirk sessions]], koje su provjeravale kvalitet podučavanja i čistoću doktrine. Također je postojao velik broj nereguliranih "avanturistički škola", koje su ponekada ispunjavale lokalnu potrebu, a ponekada odvlačile učenike od službenih škola. Izvan osnovanih gradskih škola, majstor je često kombinirao svoju poziciju sa ostalim zaposlenjima, naročito nižim pozicijama unutar crkve, poput zapisničara.<ref>M. Todd, ''The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|0-300-09234-2}}, str. 59–62.</ref> Nastavni plan i program je u najboljem slučaju uključivao [[catechism]], [[Latin language|latinski]], [[French language|francuski]], [[Classical literature]] i sport.<ref name=Wormald1991pp182-3>J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), {{ISBN|0-7486-0276-3}}, str. 183–3.</ref> Tek je u kasnom sedamnaestom vijeku stvorena većinom gotova mreža parohijskih škola u [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]], a u [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] osnovno obrazovanje je još uvijek nedostajalo u mnogim područjima do vremena kada je donesen [[Education Act 1696|Education Act]] 1696. godine, formirajući osnovu upravljanja tim sistemom do 1873. godine.<ref name=Anderson2003>R. Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre-1980", u T. G. K. Bryce i W. M. Humes, eds, ''Scottish Education: Post-Devolution'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2nd edn., 2003), {{ISBN|0-7486-1625-X}}, str. 219–28.</ref>
Humanistički interes za širenje obrazovanja dijelili su protestantski reformatori, sa željom za bogobojaznim narodom umjesto obrazovanim građanima. ''[[First Book of Discipline]]'' je 1560. uspostavila plan za školu u svakoj parohiji, ali se pokazao finansijski nemogućim.<ref>R. A. Houston, ''Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|0-521-89088-8}}, str. 5.</ref> U gradovima stare škole su održavane, sa pjesničkim školama i više novih zadižbina koje su postale reformirane gramatičke škole ili obične parohijske škole. Škole je podržavala kombinacija crkvenih fondova, doprinosa od lokalnih [[heritor]]s ili gradskih vijeća, te od roditelja koji su to mogli platiti. Inspekcije su vršile [[Session (Presbyterian)|kirk sessions]], koje su provjeravale kvalitet podučavanja i čistoću doktrine. Također je postojao velik broj nereguliranih "avanturistički škola", koje su ponekada ispunjavale lokalnu potrebu, a ponekada odvlačile učenike od službenih škola. Izvan osnovanih gradskih škola, majstor je često kombinirao svoju poziciju sa ostalim zaposlenjima, naročito nižim pozicijama unutar crkve, poput zapisničara.<ref>M. Todd, ''The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|0-300-09234-2}}, str. 59–62.</ref> Nastavni plan i program je u najboljem slučaju uključivao [[catechism]], [[Latin language|latinski]], [[French language|francuski]], [[Classical literature]] i sport.<ref name=Wormald1991pp182-3>J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), {{ISBN|0-7486-0276-3}}, str. 183–3.</ref> Tek je u kasnom sedamnaestom vijeku stvorena većinom gotova mreža parohijskih škola u [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]], a u [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] osnovno obrazovanje je još uvijek nedostajalo u mnogim područjima do vremena kada je donesen [[Education Act 1696|Education Act]] 1696. godine, formirajući osnovu upravljanja tim sistemom do 1873. godine.<ref name=Anderson2003>R. Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre-1980", u T. G. K. Bryce i W. M. Humes, eds, ''Scottish Education: Post-Devolution'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2nd edn., 2003), {{ISBN|0-7486-1625-X}}, str. 219–28.</ref>


===Universities===
=== Univerziteti ===
{{Main|Ancient universities of Scotland}}
{{Main|Ancient universities of Scotland}}
The [[twelfth-century Renaissance]] resulted in the emergence of some major intellectual figures from Scotland. Probably the most significant was [[John Duns Scotus]] ({{circa|1265}}–1308), a major influence on late medieval religious thought.<ref name=Websterpp119>B. Webster, ''Medieval Scotland: the Making of an Identity'' (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1997), {{ISBN|0-333-56761-7}}, pp. 119.</ref> After the outbreak of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]] in 1296, English universities were largely closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant.<ref name=Websterpp124-5>B. Webster, ''Medieval Scotland: the Making of an Identity'' (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1997), {{ISBN|0-333-56761-7}}, pp. 124–5.</ref> Just over a thousand Scots have been identified as attending continental universities between the twelfth century and 1410.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities, such as [[Walter Wardlaw]] (died 1387) and Laurence de Lindores (1372?–1437).<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> This situation was transformed by the founding of the [[University of St Andrews]] in 1413, the [[University of Glasgow]] in 1450 and the [[University of Aberdeen]] in 1495.<ref name=Bawcutt&Williams2006pp29-30/> Initially, these institutions were designed for the training of clerics but would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> In this period Scottish universities did not teach Greek, focused on [[metaphysics]] and put a largely unquestioning faith in the works of [[Aristotle]].<ref name=Wormald1991pp183-4/> Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go elsewhere. Scottish scholars continued to study on the Continent and at English universities which reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/>
[[Renesansa dvanaestog vijeka]] rezultirala je pojavom nekih od glavnih intelektualnih ličnosti iz Škotske. Vjerojatno najznačajniji je bio [[John Duns Scotus]] ({{circa|1265}}–1308), sa velikim utjecajem na kasnu srednjovjekovnu religijsku misao.<ref name=Websterpp119>B. Webster, ''Medieval Scotland: the Making of an Identity'' (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1997), {{ISBN|0-333-56761-7}}, str. 119.</ref> Nakon izbijanja [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]] 1296. godine, engleski univerziteti su bili većinom zatvoreni za Škote i kontinentalni univerziteti postali su značajniji.<ref name=Websterpp124-5>B. Webster, ''Medieval Scotland: the Making of an Identity'' (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1997), {{ISBN|0-333-56761-7}}, str. 124–5.</ref> Samo preko hiljadu Škota je indentificirano kao polaznika kontinentalnih univerziteta između dvanaestog vijeka i 1410. godine.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> Neki škotski učenjaci postali su učitelji na kontinentalnim univerzitetima, kao što su [[Walter Wardlaw]] (preminuo 1387.) i Laurence de Lindores (1372?–1437).<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> Tu situaciju promijenilo je osnivanje [[University of St Andrews]] 1413. godine, [[University of Glasgow]] 1450. i [[University of Aberdeen]] 1495. godine.<ref name=Bawcutt&Williams2006pp29-30/> Prvobitno, te institucije bile su stvorene za treniranje sveštenika, ali su ih sve više koristili laici koji su počeli izazivati sveštenički monopol administrativnih pozicija u vladi i zakonu.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> U tom periodu škotski univerziteti nisu podučavali grčki, već su se fokusirali na [[metaphysics]] i stavljali veliko bespogovorno povjerenje u [[Aristotel]]ova djela.<ref name=Wormald1991pp183-4/> Oni koji su htjeli imati drugostepeno obrazovanje morali su ići drugdje. Škotski učenjaci nastavili su studirati na kontinentalnim i engleskim univerzitetima koji su ponovo otvoreni za Škote u kasnom petnaestom vijeku.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/>


[[File:HectorBoece.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Hector Boece]] (1465–1536), a major figure in European humanism, who returned to be the first principal of the [[University of Aberdeen]]|alt=A coloured painting showing a man in a cap and black gown over red clothes with writing materials on a table in front of him]]
[[File:HectorBoece.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Hector Boece]] (1465–1536), a major figure in European humanism, who returned to be the first principal of the [[University of Aberdeen]]|alt=A coloured painting showing a man in a cap and black gown over red clothes with writing materials on a table in front of him]]
As early as 1495 some Scots were in contact with the leading figure in the northern humanist movement, the Netherlands-born [[Desiderius Erasmus]] (1466–1536). They were also in contact with the French humanist and scholar [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples]] ({{circa|1455}}&nbsp;–1536). Erasmus was tutor to James VI's illegitimate son, and Archbishop of St. Andrews, [[Alexander Stewart (archbishop of St Andrews)|Alexander Stewart]] (c. 1493–1513).<ref name=McGoldrickp28>James Edward McGoldrick, ''Luther's Scottish Connection'' (Associated University Presse, 1989), {{ISBN|0838633579}}, p. 28.</ref> These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life.<ref name=Wormald1991pp68-72/> By 1497 the humanist and historian [[Hector Boece]], born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris, returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish [[nominalists]] at Paris in the early sixteenth century, the most important of whom was [[John Major (philosopher)|John Mair]], generally described as a [[Scholasticism|scholastic]], but whose Latin ''History of Greater Britain'' (1521) was sympathetic to the humanist social agenda.<ref>R. Mason, "Renaissance and Reformation: the sixteenth century", in J. Wormald, ''Scotland: A History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), {{ISBN|0-19-162243-5}}, p. 100.</ref> Another major figure was Archibald Whitelaw, who taught at St. Andrews and Cologne, becoming a tutor to the young [[James III of Scotland|James III]] and [[Secretary of State, Scotland|royal secretary]] from 1462–93. [[Robert Reid (bishop)|Robert Reid]], [[Abbot of Kinloss]] and later [[Bishop of Orkney]], was responsible in the 1520s and 1530s for bringing the Italian humanist Giovanni Ferrario to teach at [[Kinloss Abbey]], where he established an impressive library and wrote works of Scottish history and biography. Reid was also instrumental in organising the public lectures which were established in Edinburgh in the 1540s on law, Greek, Latin and philosophy, under the patronage of [[Mary of Guise]]. They developed into the "Tounis College", which would become the [[University of Edinburgh]] in 1582.<ref name=Thomas2012pp196-7>A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), {{ISBN|0-19-162433-0}}, pp. 196–7.</ref>
Već 1495. neki Škoti bili su u kontaktu sa vodećim ličnostima sjevernog humanističkog pokreta, holandskim [[Desiderius Erasmus]] (1466–1536). Također su bili u dodiru sa francuskim himanistom i učenjakom [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples]] ({{circa|1455}}&nbsp;–1536). Erazmo je bio učitelj vanbračnog sina Jamesa VI. i arepiskopa sv. Andrewsa, [[Alexander Stewart (archbishop of St Andrews)|Alexander Stewart]] (c. 1493–1513).<ref name=McGoldrickp28>James Edward McGoldrick, ''Luther's Scottish Connection'' (Associated University Presse, 1989), {{ISBN|0838633579}}, str. 28.</ref> Ti međunarodni kontakti pomogli su u integraciji Škotske u širi evropski akademski svijet i bili su neki od najvažnijih načina na koje su nove ideje humanista donesene u škotski intelektualni život.<ref name=Wormald1991pp68-72/> Do 1497. humanista i historičar [[Hector Boece]], rođen u Dundeeju i koji je studirao u Parizu, vratio se i postao prvi direktor novog univerziteta u Aberdeenu.<ref name=Websterpp124-5/> Nastavljeno kretanje prema drugim univerzitetima stvorilo je školu škotskih [[nominalists]] u Parizu u ranom šesnaestom cijeku, od kojih je najvažniji bio [[John Major (philosopher)|John Mair]], koji se generalno opisuje kao [[Scholasticism|skolastik]], ali čija je ''Historija Veće Britanije'' (1521) na latinskom bila simpatetična prema humanističkog društvenoj agendi.<ref>R. Mason, "Renaissance and Reformation: the sixteenth century", u J. Wormald, ''Scotland: A History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), {{ISBN|0-19-162243-5}}, str. 100.</ref> Još jedna velika ličnost bio je Archibald Whitelaw, koji je podučavao pri Sv. Andrewsu i u Kelnu, postavši učitelj mladog [[James III of Scotland|Jamesa III.]] i [[Secretary of State, Scotland|kraljevski sekretar]] od 1462–93. [[Robert Reid (bishop)|Robert Reid]], [[Abbot of Kinloss]] i kasnije [[Bishop of Orkney]], bio je odgovoran u 1520-im i 1530-im za dovođenje talijanskog humaniste Giovannija Ferrarija da podučava u [[Kinloss Abbey]], gdje je osnovao zadivljujući biblioteku i pisao djela o škotskoj historiji i biografije. Reid je također bio ključan u organiziranju javnih predavanja koja su osnovana u Edinburghu u 1540-im o zakonu, grčkom, latinskom i filozofiji, pod pokroviteljstvom [[Mary of Guise]]. Ona su se razvila u "Koledž Tounis", koji je 1582. postao [[University of Edinburgh]].<ref name=Thomas2012pp196-7>A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", u T. M. Devine i J. Wormald, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), {{ISBN|0-19-162433-0}}, str. 196–7.</ref>


After the Reformation, Scotland's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with [[Andrew Melville]], who returned from Geneva to become principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574. Influenced by the anti-Aristotelian [[Petrus Ramus]], he placed an emphasis on simplified logic, elevating languages and sciences to the status enjoyed by philosophy and allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged.<ref name=Wormald1991pp183-4/> He introduced new specialist teaching staff, replacing the system of "regenting", where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum.<ref>J. Kirk, "'Melvillian reform' and the Scottish universities", in A. A. MacDonald and M. Lynch, eds, ''The Renaissance in Scotland: Studies in Literature, Religion, History, and Culture Offered to John Durkhan'' (Leiden: Brill, 1994), {{ISBN|90-04-10097-0}}, p. 280.</ref> Metaphysics was abandoned and Greek became compulsory in the first year, followed by [[Aramaic]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and [[Hebrew]], launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages. Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before his arrival, but students now began to attend in large numbers. Melville assisted in the reconstruction of [[Marischal College]], [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]], and in order to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed Principal of [[St Mary's College, St Andrews]] in 1580. The result was a revitalisation of all Scottish universities, which were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered anywhere in Europe.<ref name=Wormald1991pp183-4>J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), {{ISBN|0-7486-0276-3}}, pp. 183–4.</ref>
Nakon reformacije, škotski univerziteti prošli su kroz niz reformi koje se povezuju sa [[Andrew Melville]], koji se vratio iz Genove kako bi postao direktor Univerziteta u Glasgowu 1574. godine. Pod utjecajem antiaristotelovca [[Petrus Ramus]], stavio je naglasak na pojednostavljenu logiku, uzdigao jezike i nauke na status koji je uživala filozofija i prihvatio je da se ideje u svim područjima izazivaju.<ref name=Wormald1991pp183-4/> Uveo je novo specijalizirano obrazovno osoblje, koje je zamijenillo sistem "obnavljanja", gdje je jedan učitelj studente provodio kroz čitav nastavni plan umjetnosti.<ref>J. Kirk, "'Melvillian reform' and the Scottish universities", u A. A. MacDonald i M. Lynch, eds, ''The Renaissance in Scotland: Studies in Literature, Religion, History, and Culture Offered to John Durkhan'' (Leiden: Brill, 1994), {{ISBN|90-04-10097-0}}, str. 280.</ref> Metafizika je napuštena i grčki je postao obavezan na prvoj godini, a nakon njega [[Aramaic]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]] i [[hebrejski jezik]], pokrenuvši novu modu za antičkim i biblijskim jezicima. Glasgow je vjerojatno opadao kao univerzitet prije njegovog dolaska, ali su studenti sada počeli prisustvovati u velikom broju. Melville je potpomogao rekonstrukciju [[Marischal College]], [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]], i kako bi uradio za Sv. Andrews isto što je uradio za Glasgow, imenovan je direktorom [[St Mary's College, St Andrews]] 1580. godine. Rezultat toga bila je revitalizacija svih škotskih univerziteta, koji su sada stvarali kvalitetno obrazovanje jednako onom koje se pružalo bilo gdje u Evropi.<ref name=Wormald1991pp183-4>J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), {{ISBN|0-7486-0276-3}}, str. 183–4.</ref>


Major intellectual figures in the Reformation included [[George Buchanan]]. He taught in universities in France and Portugal, translated texts from Greek into Latin, and was tutor to the young Mary, Queen of Scots for whom he wrote Latin courtly poetry and masques. After her deposition in 1567, his works ''De Jure Regni apud Scotos'' (1579) and ''Rerum Scoticarum Historia'' (1582) were among the major texts outlining the case for resistance to tyrants.<ref name="Thomas2012p200"/> Buchanan was one of the young James VI's tutors and although he helped in producing a highly educated Protestant prince, who would produce works on subjects including government, poetry and witchcraft, he failed to convince the king of his ideas about limited monarchy. James would debate with both Buchanan and Melville over the status of the crown and kirk.<ref name=Thomas2012pp200-2>A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), {{ISBN|0-19-162433-0}}, pp. 200–2.</ref>
U glavne intelektualne ličnosti reformacije spadao je [[George Buchanan]]. On je podučavao na univerzitetima u Francuskoj i Portugalu, prevodio tekstove sa grčkog na latinski i bio je učitelj mlade Mary, kraljice Škota za koju je pisao dvorsku muziku na latinskom i maskenbale. Nakon njenog svrgavanja 1567. godine, njegova djela ''De Jure Regni apud Scotos'' (1579) i ''Rerum Scoticarum Historia'' (1582) bili su među glavnim tekstovima koji su zagovarali otpor prema tiranima.<ref name="Thomas2012p200"/> Buchanan je bio jedan od učitelja mladog Jamesa VI. i iako je pomogao u stvaranju visoko obrazovanog protestantskog princa, koji je stvarao djela o temama uključujući vladu, poeziju i vještičarenje, nije uspio uvjeriti kralja o svojim idejama o ograničenoj monarhiji. James je raspravljao i sa Buchananom i Melvilleom o statusu krune i crkve.<ref name=Thomas2012pp200-2>A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", u T. M. Devine i J. Wormald, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), {{ISBN|0-19-162433-0}}, str. 200–2.</ref>


==Literature==
==Literature==

Verzija na datum 18 august 2019 u 17:24

Također uraditi:

Renesansa
"Atenska škola", Rafael, 1509–1511
Teme
Regije

Renesansa u Škotskoj bila je kulturološki, intelektualni i umjetnički pokret u Škotskoj, od kasnog petnaestog vijeka do početka sedamnaestog vijeka. Povezana je sa panevropskom renesansom za koju se obično smatra da je započela u Italiji u kasnom četrnaestom vijeku i da je prodrla do sjeverne Evrope u formi sjevernoevropske renesanse u petnaestom vijeku. Uključila je pokušaj oživljavanja principa klasičnog doba, uključujući humanizam, duh učenjačkog istraživanja, skepticizma i koncepata ravnoteže i proporcije. Historičari od dvadesetog vijeka izazivaju jedinstvenost i jedinstvo renesanse, ali značajne je u Škotskoj došlo do značajnih promjena u obrazovanju, intelektualnom životu, književnosti, umjetnosti, muzici, nauci i politici.

Dvor je bio centralan za pokroviteljstvo i širenje renesansnih djela i ideja. Također je bio centralan za izvođenje raskošnog prikaza koji je pokazivao političku i religijsku ulogu monarhije. Renesansa je dovela do prihvatanja ideja carske monarhije, potičući škotsku krunu da se pridruži novim monarhijama potvrdivši carsku nadležnost i istaknutost. Rastući akcenat na obrazovanje u srednjem vijeku postao je dijelom humanističkog i potom protestantskog programa za širenje i reformiranje učenja. Rezultirao je širenjem školskog sistema i osnivanjem šest univerzitetskih koledža do kraja šesnaestog vijeka. Relativno velik broj škotskih učenjaka studirao je na kontinentu ili u Engleskoj i neki, kao što su Hector Boece, John Mair, Andrew Melville i George Buchanan, vratili su se u Škotsku kako bi igrali veliku ulogu u razvoju škotskog intelektualnog života. Djela na narodnom jeziku (škotskom) počela su se javljati u petnaestom vijeku, dok je latinski ostao glavni književni jezik. Uz pokroviteljstvo James V i James VI, u pisce su spadali William Stewart, John Bellenden, David Lyndsay, William Fowler i Alexander Montgomerie.

U šesnaestom vijeku, škotski kraljevi – naročito James V – sagradili su palače u renesansnom stilu, počevši u Linlithgowu. Taj trend ubrzo se proširio na članove aristokratije. Slikarstvo je bilo pod snažnim utjecajem flamanske umjetnosti, sa djelima koja su se naručivala sa kontinenta i Flamancima koji su služili kao dvorski umjetnici. Dok je crkvena umjetnost ispaštala usljed ikonoklazma i gubitka pokroviteljstva kao rezultat reformacije, kućni ukrasi i portreti postali su značajni za bogate, pri čemu se George Jamesone uzdigao kao prvi veliki imenovani umjetnik u ranom sedamnaestom vijeku. Muzika je također pripojila šire evropske utjecaje iako je reformacija izazvala udaljavanje od složene polyphonic crkvene muzike prema prostijem pjevanju metričkih psalama. Zajedno sa Union of Crowns 1603. godine, reformacija je također uklonila crkvu i dvor kao izvore pokroviteljstva, promijenivši smjer umjetničkog stvaralaštva i ograničivši njegov obim. U ranom sedamnaestom vijeku glavni elementi renesanse počeli su ustupati mjesto stoicizmu, manirizmu i baroku.

Definicije i debate

Glavni članak: Renaissance#Historiography

Renesansa je koncept kojeg je formulirao kulturološki historičar Jacob Burckhardt sredinom devetnaestog vijeka kako bi opisao intelektualni i umjetnički pokret koji je započeo u Italiji u četrnaestom vijeku i donio pokušaj oživljavanja principa grčkih i rimskih klasičkih svjetova. Obuhvatao je racionalan i skeptičan stav, povratak idejama originalnih izvora i proporciji i ravnoteži u umjetnosti. Za glavne ideje renesanse smatra se da su dosegle sjevernu Evropu dosta kasnije, u petnaestom vijeku. Škotska se smatrala dijelom šire sjeverne renesanse za koju se obično smatra da se protezala do ranog sedamnaestog vijeka, kada su ju zamijenili grandiozniji stilovi baroka. Međutim, povezanost baroknih stilova sa kazolicizmom u pretežno protestantskoj Škotskoj obično je rezultiralo previđanjem tog trenda i period od oko 1620. do kraja sedamnaestog vijeka ponekada se karakteriše kao kasna renesansa.[1]

U dvadesetom vijeku, historičari su opovrgavali validnost koncepta renesanse kao jedinstvene reakcije na "mračno doba" srednjovjekovnog, kao jasnog razlaza od prošlosti[1] i kao jedinstvenog pokreta.[2] Umjesto toga naglašavali su mnoge intelektualne trendove i pokrete koji su došli prije nje, kao što je renesansa dvanaestog vijeka na kojoj je ona izgrađena. Nekada je također bilo često da historičari predlažu da je Škotska imala malo do nikakvog sudjelovanja u renesansi. U novije doba, značajne promjene u intelektualnom i kulturološkom životu tog perioda smatraju se formiranjem razvođa u škotskoj kulturološkoj historiji. Smatralo se da je to otvorilo put ka reformaciji i kasnije modernizaciji misli i društvenog života u Enlightenment i Industrial Revolution, kojima je Škotska dala značajan doprinos.[1]

Dvor i kraljevstvo

Glavni članak: Government in Medieval Scotland
A red stone courtyard with a doorway in the middle background and an ornate fountain in the mid-ground.
Linlithgow Palace, rebuilt for James V to suggest an open-air Renaissance courtyard

Dvor je bio centralan za pokroviteljstvo i širenje renesansnih djela i ideja. Također je bio centralan za izvođenje raskošnog prikaza koji je prikazivao političku i religijsku ulogu monarhije. Taj prikaz često se povezivao sa idejama viteštva, koje je u tom periodu evoluiralo iz praktičnog vojnog etosa u više ornamentalan i počastan kult. Vukao je porijeklo iz klasične ere, pri čemu su Hector of Troy, Alexander the Great i Julius Caesar često prikazivani kao protovitezovi. Turniri su pružali jedan fokus prikaza, pri čemu su najpoznatiji bili Divlji vitez iz 1507. i Crna dama iz 1508. pod Jamesom IV. Također ih je sa entuzijazmom održavao James V koji je, ponosan na svoje članstvo u međunarodnim viteškim redovima, prikazivao njihove oznake na kapiji Palače Linlithgow.[3]

Tokom svoje kratke vladavine, Mary, Queen of Scots donijela je sa sobom mnoge složene dvorske aktivnosti sa kojima je odrasla na francuskom dvoru. Uvela je balove, maskenbale i proslave koje su pokazivale preporod monarhije i podržale nacionalno jedinstvo. Najsloženiji događaj bilo je krštenje budućeg Jamesa VI. u Stirling Castle 1566. godine, koje je organizirao njen francuski sluga Bastian Pagez. Ono je uključivalo složenu ikonografiju, zajedno sa klasičnim temama božice Astraee i oživljavanja klasičnog zlatnog doba, sa viteštvom Round Table. Za ceremonijom uslijedio je banket, lovovi, gozbe, pjesništvo, ples i teatar, kulminirajući priređenom opsadom i vatrometima.[3] Dvor se vratio kao centar kulture i učenja pod vladavinom Jamesa VI. On je održavao imidž kralja filozofa, dozivajući modele Davida, Solomona i Konstantina, što se moglo vidjeti u njegovom "radosnom ulasku" u Edinburgh 1579. godine. Najveći događaj njegove vladavine bilo je krštenje njegovog sina i nasljednika Princa Henryja 1595. godine. Za to je kraljevska kapela u zamku Stirling preuređena kako bi odražavala proporcije Solomonovog hrama. Započeta je trodnevna gozba, turnir i maskenbal sa ship of state čija su posada bila klasična božanstva i muses. Isplanirano od strane Williama Fowlera, bilo je dizajnirano da izgradi sliku kralja i podrži njegovo pravo na engleski i irski prijesto.[4]

Images of a silver coin: one side showing a crowned king and the other the heraldic lion rampant of Scotland on a shield, both surrounded by writing.
Groat of James V, showing him wearing an imperial closed crown

Nove ideje također su utjecale na poglede vlade, opisane kao nove ili renesansne monarhije, koja je naglašavala status i značaj monarha. Princip rimskog prava da je "kralj car u vlastitom kraljevstvu" može se vidjeti u Škotskoj od sredine petnaestog vijeka. Parlament je 1469. proveo čin kojim je proglašeno da James III posjeduje "punu jurisdikciju i carevanje unutar svoje kraljevine". Od 1480-ih kraljeva slika na njegovim srebrnim groats prikazivala ga je sa zatvorenom, povijenom imperial crown, umjesto otvorenog circlet srednjovjekovnih kraljeva, vjerojatno prva slika na kovanici svoje vrste izvan Italije. Ubrzo se počela pojavljivati u heraldici, na kraljevskim pečatima, rukopisima, skulpturama i kao crown steeples na crkvama sa vezama sa kraljem, kao što je St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh.[5] Prvi škotski monarh koji je nosio takvu krunu bio je James V., čija je dijadema perađena kako bi sadržavala i lukove 1532. godine. Uključeni su kada je rekonstruirana 1540. godine, opstajući u Crown of Scotland. Ideja carske monarhije naglašavala je dostojanstvo krune i uključivala njenu ulogu kao ujedinjujuće nacionalne snage, braneći državne granice i interese, kraljevsku nadmoć nad zakonom i istaknutu državnu crkvu unutar katoličke pričesti.[5] Nova monarhija također se može vidjeti u oslanjanju krune na "new men" umjesto velikih magnata, upotrebu sveštenstva kao oblika državne službe, razvoj stojećih oružanih snaga i mornarice.[6] Uvećanje monarhije doseglo je svoj najveći uspon u razvoju koncepta carske vladavine u božansko pravo pod vladavinom Jamesa VI.[4]

Obrazovanje

Glavni članak: History of education in Scotland

Škole

Glavni članak: History of schools in Scotland
A black and white reproduction of a painting of a man with a bishop's mitre and crook praying, with a window in the background
William Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, founder of the University of Aberdeen and probably the architect of the Education Act 1496

U ranom srednjem vijeku, formalno obrazovanje bilo je ograničeno na monastički život, ali od dvanaestog vijeka novi izvori obrazovanja su se počeli razvijati, sa pjesničkim i grammar schools. One su obično bile povezane sa katedralama ili collegiate church i bile su najčešće u gradovima u razvoju. Do kraja srednjeg vijeka gramatičke škole mogle su se pronaći u svim glavnim burghs i nekim manjim gradovima.[7] Također su postojale male škole, češće u ruralnim područjima i koje su pružale osnovno obrazovanje.[8] One su bile gotovo isključivo usmjerene na dječake, ali do kraja petnaestog vijeka u Edinburghu su također postojale škole za djevojčice. One su nekada opisivane kao "škole šivanja" i vjerojatno su podučavale žene laike ili kaluđerice.[7][8] Također je došlo do razvoja privatnog podučavanja u porodicama lordova i bogatih građana.[7] Rastući naglasak na obrazovanje u kasnom srednjem vijeku kulminirao je prihvatanjem Education Act 1496, kojim je određeno da svi sinovi barona i imućnih slobodnih posjednika trebaju pohađati gramatičke škole i koji je podržavao humanistički interes za učenje "savršenog latinskog". Sve je to rezultiralo povećanjem pismenosti, iako je bila većinom koncentrirana na muškarce i bogatu elitu,[7] sa možda 60 procenata pismenog plemstva do kraja petnaestog vijeka.[9]

Humanistički interes za širenje obrazovanja dijelili su protestantski reformatori, sa željom za bogobojaznim narodom umjesto obrazovanim građanima. First Book of Discipline je 1560. uspostavila plan za školu u svakoj parohiji, ali se pokazao finansijski nemogućim.[10] U gradovima stare škole su održavane, sa pjesničkim školama i više novih zadižbina koje su postale reformirane gramatičke škole ili obične parohijske škole. Škole je podržavala kombinacija crkvenih fondova, doprinosa od lokalnih heritors ili gradskih vijeća, te od roditelja koji su to mogli platiti. Inspekcije su vršile kirk sessions, koje su provjeravale kvalitet podučavanja i čistoću doktrine. Također je postojao velik broj nereguliranih "avanturistički škola", koje su ponekada ispunjavale lokalnu potrebu, a ponekada odvlačile učenike od službenih škola. Izvan osnovanih gradskih škola, majstor je često kombinirao svoju poziciju sa ostalim zaposlenjima, naročito nižim pozicijama unutar crkve, poput zapisničara.[11] Nastavni plan i program je u najboljem slučaju uključivao catechism, latinski, francuski, Classical literature i sport.[12] Tek je u kasnom sedamnaestom vijeku stvorena većinom gotova mreža parohijskih škola u Lowlands, a u Highlands osnovno obrazovanje je još uvijek nedostajalo u mnogim područjima do vremena kada je donesen Education Act 1696. godine, formirajući osnovu upravljanja tim sistemom do 1873. godine.[13]

Univerziteti

Glavni članak: Ancient universities of Scotland

Renesansa dvanaestog vijeka rezultirala je pojavom nekih od glavnih intelektualnih ličnosti iz Škotske. Vjerojatno najznačajniji je bio John Duns Scotus (c. 1265–1308), sa velikim utjecajem na kasnu srednjovjekovnu religijsku misao.[14] Nakon izbijanja Wars of Independence 1296. godine, engleski univerziteti su bili većinom zatvoreni za Škote i kontinentalni univerziteti postali su značajniji.[15] Samo preko hiljadu Škota je indentificirano kao polaznika kontinentalnih univerziteta između dvanaestog vijeka i 1410. godine.[15] Neki škotski učenjaci postali su učitelji na kontinentalnim univerzitetima, kao što su Walter Wardlaw (preminuo 1387.) i Laurence de Lindores (1372?–1437).[15] Tu situaciju promijenilo je osnivanje University of St Andrews 1413. godine, University of Glasgow 1450. i University of Aberdeen 1495. godine.[7] Prvobitno, te institucije bile su stvorene za treniranje sveštenika, ali su ih sve više koristili laici koji su počeli izazivati sveštenički monopol administrativnih pozicija u vladi i zakonu.[15] U tom periodu škotski univerziteti nisu podučavali grčki, već su se fokusirali na metaphysics i stavljali veliko bespogovorno povjerenje u Aristotelova djela.[16] Oni koji su htjeli imati drugostepeno obrazovanje morali su ići drugdje. Škotski učenjaci nastavili su studirati na kontinentalnim i engleskim univerzitetima koji su ponovo otvoreni za Škote u kasnom petnaestom vijeku.[15]

A coloured painting showing a man in a cap and black gown over red clothes with writing materials on a table in front of him
Hector Boece (1465–1536), a major figure in European humanism, who returned to be the first principal of the University of Aberdeen

Već 1495. neki Škoti bili su u kontaktu sa vodećim ličnostima sjevernog humanističkog pokreta, holandskim Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536). Također su bili u dodiru sa francuskim himanistom i učenjakom Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (c. 1455 –1536). Erazmo je bio učitelj vanbračnog sina Jamesa VI. i arepiskopa sv. Andrewsa, Alexander Stewart (c. 1493–1513).[17] Ti međunarodni kontakti pomogli su u integraciji Škotske u širi evropski akademski svijet i bili su neki od najvažnijih načina na koje su nove ideje humanista donesene u škotski intelektualni život.[9] Do 1497. humanista i historičar Hector Boece, rođen u Dundeeju i koji je studirao u Parizu, vratio se i postao prvi direktor novog univerziteta u Aberdeenu.[15] Nastavljeno kretanje prema drugim univerzitetima stvorilo je školu škotskih nominalists u Parizu u ranom šesnaestom cijeku, od kojih je najvažniji bio John Mair, koji se generalno opisuje kao skolastik, ali čija je Historija Veće Britanije (1521) na latinskom bila simpatetična prema humanističkog društvenoj agendi.[18] Još jedna velika ličnost bio je Archibald Whitelaw, koji je podučavao pri Sv. Andrewsu i u Kelnu, postavši učitelj mladog Jamesa III. i kraljevski sekretar od 1462–93. Robert Reid, Abbot of Kinloss i kasnije Bishop of Orkney, bio je odgovoran u 1520-im i 1530-im za dovođenje talijanskog humaniste Giovannija Ferrarija da podučava u Kinloss Abbey, gdje je osnovao zadivljujući biblioteku i pisao djela o škotskoj historiji i biografije. Reid je također bio ključan u organiziranju javnih predavanja koja su osnovana u Edinburghu u 1540-im o zakonu, grčkom, latinskom i filozofiji, pod pokroviteljstvom Mary of Guise. Ona su se razvila u "Koledž Tounis", koji je 1582. postao University of Edinburgh.[19]

Nakon reformacije, škotski univerziteti prošli su kroz niz reformi koje se povezuju sa Andrew Melville, koji se vratio iz Genove kako bi postao direktor Univerziteta u Glasgowu 1574. godine. Pod utjecajem antiaristotelovca Petrus Ramus, stavio je naglasak na pojednostavljenu logiku, uzdigao jezike i nauke na status koji je uživala filozofija i prihvatio je da se ideje u svim područjima izazivaju.[16] Uveo je novo specijalizirano obrazovno osoblje, koje je zamijenillo sistem "obnavljanja", gdje je jedan učitelj studente provodio kroz čitav nastavni plan umjetnosti.[20] Metafizika je napuštena i grčki je postao obavezan na prvoj godini, a nakon njega Aramaic, Syriac i hebrejski jezik, pokrenuvši novu modu za antičkim i biblijskim jezicima. Glasgow je vjerojatno opadao kao univerzitet prije njegovog dolaska, ali su studenti sada počeli prisustvovati u velikom broju. Melville je potpomogao rekonstrukciju Marischal College, Aberdeen, i kako bi uradio za Sv. Andrews isto što je uradio za Glasgow, imenovan je direktorom St Mary's College, St Andrews 1580. godine. Rezultat toga bila je revitalizacija svih škotskih univerziteta, koji su sada stvarali kvalitetno obrazovanje jednako onom koje se pružalo bilo gdje u Evropi.[16]

U glavne intelektualne ličnosti reformacije spadao je George Buchanan. On je podučavao na univerzitetima u Francuskoj i Portugalu, prevodio tekstove sa grčkog na latinski i bio je učitelj mlade Mary, kraljice Škota za koju je pisao dvorsku muziku na latinskom i maskenbale. Nakon njenog svrgavanja 1567. godine, njegova djela De Jure Regni apud Scotos (1579) i Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582) bili su među glavnim tekstovima koji su zagovarali otpor prema tiranima.[4] Buchanan je bio jedan od učitelja mladog Jamesa VI. i iako je pomogao u stvaranju visoko obrazovanog protestantskog princa, koji je stvarao djela o temama uključujući vladu, poeziju i vještičarenje, nije uspio uvjeriti kralja o svojim idejama o ograničenoj monarhiji. James je raspravljao i sa Buchananom i Melvilleom o statusu krune i crkve.[21]

Literature

Glavni članak: Scottish literature
A black print on a yellowed background showing Adam and Eve with a tree between them on which is a shield with the initial WC and the name Walter Chapman printed below.
Front page of William Dunbar's The Goldyn Targe (a 1508 print)

In the late fifteenth century, Scots prose also began to develop as a genre and to demonstrate classical and humanist influences.[22] Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose, such as the Auchinleck Chronicle,[23] the first complete surviving work includes John Ireland's The Meroure of Wyssdome (1490).[24] There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s, including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum, an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle's advice to Alexander the Great.[25]

The establishment of a printing press under royal patent from James IV in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature.[26] The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Gavin Douglas's version of Virgil's Aeneid, the Eneados. It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language, finished in 1513, but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden.[25] Much Middle Scots literature was produced by makars, poets with links to the royal court. These included James I (who wrote The Kingis Quair). Many of the makars had a university education and so were also connected with the Kirk. However, William Dunbar's Lament for the Makaris (c.1505) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost.[27] Before the advent of printing in Scotland, writers such as Dunbar, Douglas, together with Robert Henryson and Walter Kennedy, have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry. They continued medieval themes, but were increasingly influenced by new continental trends and the language and forms of the Renaissance.[25]

As a patron James V supported poets William Stewart and John Bellenden. Stewart produced a verse version of the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Boece[28] and Bellenden produced a prose translation of Livy's History of Rome in 1533.[19] Sir David Lindsay of the Mount the Lord Lyon, the head of the Lyon Court and diplomat, was a prolific poet. He produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540, the first surviving full Scottish play, which satirised the corruption of church and state,[28] making use of elements such as medieval morality plays, with a humanist agenda.[19]

In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted the literature of the country of his birth. His treatise, Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, Scots, to which he applied Renaissance principles.[29] He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians, the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie.[30] By the late 1590s his championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting the English throne,[31] and some courtier poets who followed the king to London after 1603, such as William Alexander, began to anglicise their written language.[32] James's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign,[33] but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined.[34]

Architecture

Glavni članak: Architecture of Scotland

The influence of the Renaissance on Scottish architecture has been seen as occurring in two distinct phases. The selective use of Romanesque forms in church architecture in the early fifteenth century was followed towards the end of the century by a phase of more directly influenced Renaissance palace building.[35] The re-adoption of low-massive church building with round arches and pillars, in contrast to the Gothic perpendicular style that was particularly dominant in England in the late medieval era, may have been influenced by close contacts with Rome and the Netherlands, and may have been a conscious reaction to English forms in favour of continental ones. It can be seen in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral, begun in 1406, the facade of St Mary's, Haddington from the 1460s and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone's Kings College, Aberdeen (1500–9).[35] About forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland in late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Many, like Trinity College, Edinburgh, showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles.[36]

The side of a stone building with windows and figures on pedestals.
The sculptural decoration of James V's place at Stirling Castle

The extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces probably began under James III, accelerated under James IV, reaching its peak under James V. These works have been seen as directly reflecting the influence of Renaissance styles. Linlithgow was first constructed under James I, under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun. From 1429, it was referred to as a palace, apparently the first use of this term in the country. This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular, corner-towered Italian signorial palace of a palatium ad moden castri (a castle-style palace), combining classical symmetry with neo-chivalric imagery. There is evidence of Italian masons working for James IV, in whose reign Linlithgow was completed and other palaces were rebuilt with Italianate proportions.[37] James V encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences.[38] Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style prevalent in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European, beginning with the extensive work at Linlithgow.[39] This was followed by rebuildings at Holyrood, Falkland, Stirling and Edinburgh,[40] described as "some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain".[41] Rather than slavishly copying continental forms, most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns,[40] adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials (particularly stone and harl).[42] Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences, with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow, built in 1618, using classical pediments. Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats, as in Mar's Wark, Stirling (c. 1570) and Crichton Castle, built for the Earl of Bothwell in the 1580s.[43]

A stone church with a tower in a church yard with grave markers, which is partially covered with snow.
Cawdor church, built in 1619 on a Greek cross plan

New military architecture and the trace Italienne style was brought by Italian architects and military engineers during the war of the Rough Wooing and the regency of Mary of Guise including Migliorino Ubaldini who worked at Edinburgh Castle, Camillo Marini who designed forts on the borders, and Lorenzo Pomarelli who worked for Mary of Guise.[44] The unique style of great private houses in Scotland, later known as Scots baronial, has been located in origin to the period of the 1560s. It kept many of the features of the high walled Medieval castles that had been largely made obsolete by gunpowder weapons and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces. It drew on the tower houses and peel towers,[45] which had been built in hundreds by local lords since the fourteenth century, particularly in the borders. These abandoned defensible curtain walls for a fortified refuge, designed to outlast a raid, rather than a sustained siege.[46][47] They were usually of three stories, typically crowned with a parapet, projecting on corbels, continuing into circular bartizans at each corner.[48] New houses retained many of these external features, but with a larger ground plan, classically a "Z-plan" of a rectangular block with towers, as at Colliston Castle (1583) and Claypotts Castle (1569–88). Particularly influential was the work of William Wallace, the king's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631. He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618, Winton House for George Seton, 3rd Earl of Winton and began work on Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh. He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at Château d'Ancy-le-Franc. This style can be seen in lords houses built at Caerlaverlock (1620), Moray House, Edinburgh (1628) and Drumlanrig Castle (1675–89), and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century.[45]

From about 1560, the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland. Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship, with no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual, resulting in the widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings, ornaments and decoration.[49] There was a need to adapt and build new churches suitable for reformed services, with greater emphasis on preaching and the pulpit. Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles, a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century, as at Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s, Greenock (1591) and Durness (1619). The church of Greyfriars, Edinburgh, built between 1602 and 1620, used this layout with a largely Gothic form while that at Dirleton (1612) had a more sophisticated classical style. A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post-Reformation Scotland was the "T"-shaped plan, often used when adapting existing churches as it allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit. Examples can be seen at Kemback in Fife (1582) and Prestonpans after 1595. The "T" plan continued to be used into the seventeenth century as at Weem (1600), Anstruther Easter, Fife (1634–44) and New Cumnock (1657). In the seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor (1619) and Fenwick (1643). In most of these cases one arm of the cross was closed off as a laird's aisle, with the result that they were in effect "T"-plan churches.[50]

Art

Glavni članak: Scottish art

We know almost nothing about native Scottish artists in the Middle Ages. As in England, the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions, but the versions of native royal portraits that survive from the late Middle Ages are generally crude by continental standards.[51] Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent, particularly the Netherlands, generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance.[51] The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone;[52] the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld; Hugo van Der Goes's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh, commissioned by James III; and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named.[51] There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, usually produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons. These included the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder, Bishop of Glasgow, between 1484 and 1492[52] and the Flemish illustrated book of hours, known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland, given by James IV to Margaret Tudor and described as "perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use".[53]

Four wooden beams with three sets of coloured paintings between them, made up of fruit, flowers and other patterns.
The seventeenth-century painted ceiling at Aberdour Castle, Fife

Surviving stone and wood carvings, wall paintings and tapestries suggest the richness of sixteenth century royal art. At Stirling Castle, stone carvings on the royal palace from the reign of James V are taken from German patterns,[54] and like the surviving carved oak portrait roundels from the King's Presence Chamber, known as the Stirling Heads, they include contemporary, biblical and classical figures.[55] Some decorative wood carvings were made by French craftsmen, who like Andrew Mansioun, settled in Scotland.[56] Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture and paintings. The parallel loss of patronage created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists, who turned to secular patrons. One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls, with large numbers of private houses of burgesses, lairds and lords gaining often highly detailed and coloured patterns and scenes. Over a hundred examples are known to have existed, and surviving paintings include the ceiling at Prestongrange, undertaken in 1581 for Mark Kerr, Commendator of Newbattle, and the long gallery at Pinkie House, painted for Alexander Seaton, Earl of Dunfermline, in 1621. These were undertaken by unnamed Scottish artists using continental pattern books that often led to the incorporation of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism, with elements that call on heraldry, piety, classical myths and allegory.[57]

In 1502 Henry VII sent his Flemish portrait painter Maynard Wewyck to the court of James IV and Margaret Tudor.[58] Later in the sixteenth-century anonymous artists made portraits of important individuals, including the Earl of Bothwell and his first wife Jean Gordon (1566), and George, 7th Lord Seton (c. 1575).[59] The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by minorities and regencies between 1513 and 1579.[60] James VI employed two Flemish artists, Arnold Bronckorst (floruit, in Scotland, 1580–1583) and Adrian Vanson (fl. 1581–1602), who have left us a visual record of the king and major figures at the court. The first significant native artist was George Jamesone of Aberdeen (1589/90-1644), who became one of the most successful portrait painters of the reign of Charles I and trained the Baroque artist John Michael Wright (1617–94).[57]

Music

Glavni članak: Music in early modern Scotland
Vidi takođe: Early music of the British Isles
The interior of the Chapel Royal, Stirling Castle, a major focus for liturgical music

The captivity of James I in England from 1406 to 1423, where he earned a reputation as a poet and composer, may have led him to take English and continental styles and musicians back to the Scottish court on his release.[61] In the late fifteenth century a series of Scottish musicians trained in the Netherlands, then the centre of musical production in Western Europe, before returning home. They included John Broune, Thomas Inglis and John Fety, the last of whom became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh, introducing the new five-fingered organ playing technique.[62] In 1501 James IV refounded the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle, with a new and enlarged choir and it became the focus of Scottish liturgical music. Burgundian and English influences were probably reinforced when Henry VII's daughter Margaret Tudor married James IV in 1503.[63] The outstanding Scottish composer of the first half of the sixteenth century was Robert Carver (c. 1488–1558), a canon of Scone Abbey. Five masses and two votive antiphons have survived in his choirbook. One of the masses provides the only example of the use of the continental fashion of the cantus firmus to have survived in Britain. The antiphon "Oh Bone Jesu" was scored for 19 voices, perhaps to commemorate the 19th year of the reign of James V. His complex polyphonic music could only have been performed by a large and highly trained choir such as the one employed in the Chapel Royal. James V was also a patron to figures including David Peebles (c. 1510–79?), whose best known work "Si quis diligit me" (text from John 14:23), is a motet for four voices. These were probably only two of many accomplished composers of their times, their work surviving largely in fragments.[64]

In this era Scotland followed the trend of Renaissance courts for instrumental accompaniment and playing. Accounts indicate that there were lutanists at the court from the reign of James III and in the houses of the great lords and clergymen. Instruments also appear in art of the period, with a ceiling at Crathes Castle showing muses with lute, bass viol, fiddle, harp, cittern, flute and clavicord, similar to a mixed consort found in England in this period.[65] Music also became one of the accomplishments of the Renaissance courtier and even royalty.[66] James IV entertained his bride Margaret Tudor during their marriage celebrations by playing "the clarychords and lute" and Margaret herself had been taught the lute as a child. James V, as well as being a major patron of sacred music, was a talented lute player and introduced French chansons and consorts of viols to his court, although almost nothing of this secular chamber music survives.[67]

A colour painting of a woman in a red sixteenth century dress playing a lute and looking at a book of music on a covered table, a decorated object can be seen in a window niche in the background.
The playing of instruments, including the lute, became one of the major accomplishments expected of a Renaissance courtier.

The Reformation would severely affect church music. The song schools of the abbeys, cathedrals and collegiate churches were closed down, choirs disbanded, music books and manuscripts destroyed and organs removed from churches.[57] The Lutheranism that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship, drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs. The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis, which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers James, John and Robert Wedderburn. Never adopted by the kirk, they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s. Later the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music, placing an emphasis on what was biblical, which meant the Psalms. The Scottish psalter of 1564 was commissioned by the Assembly of the Church. It drew on the work of French musician Clément Marot, Calvin's contributions to the Strasbourg psalter of 1529 and English writers, particularly the 1561 edition of the psalter produced by William Whittingham for the English congregation in Geneva. The intention was to produce individual tunes for each psalm, but of 150 psalms, 105 had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century, common tunes, which could be used for psalms with the same metre, became more common. The need for simplicity for whole congregations that would now all sing these psalms, unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns,[68] necessitated simplicity and most church compositions were confined to homophonic settings.[69] There is some evidence that polyphony survived and was incorporated into editions of the psalter from 1625, but usually with the congregation singing the melody and trained singers the contra-tenor, treble and bass parts.[68]

The return of James V's daughter Mary from France in 1561 to begin her personal reign, and her position as a Catholic, gave a new lease of life to the choir of the Scottish Chapel Royal, but the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumentation to accompany the mass had to employ bands of musicians with trumpets, drums, fifes, bagpipes and tabors.[70] Like her father she played the lute, virginals and (unlike her father) was a fine singer.[70] She brought French musical influences with her, employing lutenists and viol players in her household.[71] James VI was a major patron of the arts in general. He made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music,[72] attempting to revive burgh song schools from 1579.[57] He rebuilt the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 and the choir was used for state occasions like the baptism of his son Henry.[73] He followed the tradition of employing lutenists for his private entertainment, as did other members of his family.[74] When he went south to take the throne of England in 1603 as James I, he removed one of the major sources of patronage in Scotland. Beginning to fall into disrepair, the Scottish Chapel Royal was now used only for occasional state visits, leaving the court in Westminster as the only major source of royal musical patronage.[73]

Opadanje i utjecaj

A colour painting of a man with white hair that may be a wig, in a dark gown with white sleeves and collar, he holds a book in his hand.
Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746), a major figure in the Scottish Enlightenment, product of the Scottish university system and humanist tradition that had their origins in the Renaissance.

Smatra se da je renesansa u Škotskoj dosegla svoj vrhunac u prvoj polovini šesnaestog vijeka, između vladavina Jamesa IV. i uklanjanja Mary, Queen of Scots. Gubitak crkve kao izvora pokroviteljstva tokom 1560-ih i dvora 1603. promijenio je i ograničio daljnji razvoj renesansnih ideja. U istom periodu građanski humanizam je počeo ustupati mjesto privatnom posvećivanju i povlačenju od svijetskog utjecaja u formi stoicizma. U umjetnosti i arhitekturi, renesansne proporcije počele su ustupati mjesto manirizmu i pretjeranijem stilu baroka od oko 1620. godine.[75]

Naslijeđe renesanse može se vidjeti u transformaciji vladajuće elite u škotskom društvu iz ratničke kaste u jednu sa razrađenijim moralom i vrijednostima.[76] Humanizam je stvorio prihvatanje značaja učenja, što je doprinijelo naslijeđu škotske škole i sistema univerziteta.[77] Konkretno, 1496 Education Act se smatra osnivajućim presedanom za javni sistem obrazovanja, kojeg su reformisti prihvatili 1560. i informirali kasnije zakonodavstvo i širenje.[78] Osnivanje škotskih univerziteta, naročito humanističkih reformi povezanih sa Melvilleom, omogućilo je Škotskoj da sudjeluje u "obrazovnoj revoluciji" ranog modernog doba i bilo je od vitalnog značaja za razvoj Enlightenment in Scotland.[79] Te okolnosti su prema Davidu McCroneu učinile obrazovanje "neophodnim za smisao škotskosti".[80]

Renesansa je ostavila naslijeđe u intelektualnim područjima uključujući poeziju, historijsko pisanje i arhitekturu, koje se nastavilo u sedamnaestom i osamnaestom vijeku.[81] Pojavljivao se rastući broj škotskih učenjaka koji su imali rastuće samopouzdanje u svoju vlastitu književnost.[82] Dio objašnjenja za iznenadan procvat škotskog prosvjetiteljstva je da je ta država već imala historiju postignuća u filozofiji, pjesništvu, muzici, matematici i arhitekturi i da je bila u bliskom dodiru sa intelektualnim trendovima u ostatku Evrope.[83] U tom periodu Škotska je ostavila velik doprinos poljima medicine, zakona, filozofije, geologije i historije.[79] Među tim idejama ograničavanje kraljevske suverenosti nad narodom ostalo je prisutno u škotskom intelektualnom životu i ponovo se pojavilo i doprinijelo glavnim raspravama osamnaestog vijeka.[84]

Povezano

Bilješke

  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", u T. M. Devine i J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, str. 185–7.
  2. ↑ J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, str. 56.
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", u T. M. Devine i J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, str. 192–3.
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", u T. M. Devine i J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, str. 200.
  5. ↑ 5,0 5,1 A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", u T. M. Devine i J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, str. 188.
  6. ↑ J. D. Mackie, B. Lenman and G. Parker, A History of Scotland (London: Penguin, 1991), ISBN 0-14-013649-5.
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 7,3 7,4 P. J. Bawcutt i J. H. Williams, A Companion to Medieval Scottish Poetry (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2006), ISBN 1-84384-096-0, str. 29–30.
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  82. ↑ D. Allan, Virtue, Learning and the Scottish Enlightenment: Ideas of Scholarship in Early Modern History (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993), ISBN 0-7486-0438-3, str. 32.
  83. ↑ P. H. Scott, The Age of Liberation (Edinburgh: The Saltire Society, 2008), ISBN 0-85411-101-8, str. 17.
  84. ↑ D. Allan, Virtue, Learning and the Scottish Enlightenment: Ideas of Scholarship in Early Modern History (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993), ISBN 0-7486-0438-3, str. 39.

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