Renesansa u Škotskoj

Također uraditi: Renaissance in Poland, Portuguese Renaissance

Renesansa
"Atenska škola", Rafael, 1509–1511
Teme
Humanizam Istraživanje Arhitektura Ples Umjetnost Književnost Muzika Filozofija Nauka Tehnologija Ratovanje
Regije
Italija Engleska Francuska Njemačka Poljska Portugal Španija Škotska Sjeverna Evropa Nizozemske zemlje

Portugalska renesansa odnosi se na kulturološki i umjetnički pokret u Portugalu tokom 15. i 16. vijeka. Iako se taj pokret desio u isto vrijeme kao i španska i talijanska renesansa, portugalska renesansa bila je velikim dijelom odvojena od ostalih evropskih renesansi i umjesto toga bila izuzetno važna u otvaranju Evrope nepoznatome i dovođenju svjetovnijeg pogleda evropskim renesansama, budući da se tada portugalsko kolonijalno carstvo prostiralom širom svijeta.

Kao pionir doba velikih geografskih otkrića, Portugal je procvjetao u 15., 16. i 17. vijeku, sa putovanjima u Indiju, Orijent, Amerike i Afriku. Ta ogromna trgovačka mreža stvorila je izuzetno bogatu portugalsku vlastelu i monarhiju, koji su postali pokrovitelji izuzetnog procvata kulture, umjetnosti i tehnologije u Portugalu i širom svijeta.

Kontekst

Prostranstvo i raznolikost Portugalskog kolonijalnog carstva bio je ključan faktor iza portugalske renesanse.

Portugal je tokom renesanse privlačio diplomate, trgovce, studente, humaniste, učenjake i umjetnike iz čitave Evrope. Pomorska trgovina u doba velikih geografskih otkrića igrala je odlučujuću ulogu u razvoju portugalske renesanse. Trgovina je pojačala kontakt sa važnim centrima talijanske renesanse i omogućila joj je novu komercijalnu buržoaziju da se obogati i ima suvišak novca kako bi postala pokrovitelj portugalske renesanse, slično kao i kod drugih evropskih renesansi.

Otkriće novih svjetova i kontakt sa drugim civilizacijama doveo je do miješanja kultura, što se odrazilo na umjetnost i književnost portugalske renesanse. Kontakt sa civilizacijama Afrike i Istoka doveo je do uvoza brojnih keramičkih predmeta, tekstila i namještaja, skupocjenog drveta, slonovače i svila, što je opet dovelo do pojave novih oblika umjetnosti i kulturološke razmjene između Evrope i Istočne Afrike, kroz Portugal. Nova trgovina predmetima sa novootkrivenim zemljama također je ono što je dozvolilo finansiranje portugalske renesanse, stvorivši bogatu portugalsku vlastelinsku i trgovačku klasu.

Portugalske veze, putem ogromnog Portugalskog Carstva, sa čitavim svijetom razmjene, kulture i trgovine, od Japana do Brazila i od Azora do Goe, bile su te koje su omogućile rađanje portugalske renesanse. Jedinstvena sposobnost te države da stupi u interakciju i kolonizira druge narode (kasnije zvana luzotropikalizam), omogućila joj je finansiranje vlastite bogate renesanse, u umjetnosti, humanistici, religiji i nauci, ne samo u svom centralnom dijelu, već i širom svog carstva, zbog posebne poveznice koju je portugalsko kolonijalno crstvo imalo sa Portugalom Portugal.

Umjetnost

Umjetnost u portugalskoj renesansi je predmet historiogeografskih rasprava. To je slučaj zato što, iako je umjetnost procvjetala u to doba, ona nije slijedila klasicističke estetičke standarde na kojima su Italijani sagradili svoju renesansu. Umjetnost portugalske renesanse bila je jedinstvena u odnosu na druge renesansne umjetnosti. Ona je bila mješavina kasnogotičkog stila sa inovacijama petnaestog vijeka i portugalskim nacionalnim primjesama u isto vrijeme. Asimilacija sa talijanskim renesansnim modelom umjetnosti počinje tek oko 1540. godine, kada su se portugalski reneansni umjetnici počeli odvajati od svojih nacionalnim normi i prilagođavati klasicističkom talijanskom i španskom modelu, iako su i dalje zadržali portugalsku prirodu.

Torre de Belém Francisca de Arrude jedno je od najemblematičnijih arhitektonskih djela portugalske reneanse.

Arhitektura

U pogledu arhitekture, slično kao i u mnogim dijelovima umjetnosti, Portugalsko carstvo u početku i većinom nije slijedilo puteve ostalih renesansi, koje su se jako fokusirale na sofisticiranost i jednostavnost antičke Grčke i Rima. Veći dio portugalske renesanse, njena arhitektura većinom je bila nastavak i razrada gotičkog stila.

Profit od trgovine začinima, tokom vladavine Johna II, Manuela I i Johna III, finansirao je raskošan i dominantan stil portugalske renesanse, manuelinski stil. Manuelinski stil je bio većinom intrikatan i složen stil, sa jakim gotičkim i neoklasički utjecajem, koji je bio jedinstven za Portugal.

Prva poznata građevina urađena u manuelinskom stilu je Manastir Isusa od Setubala, kojeg je osmislio Diogo de Boitaca, jedan od izvornika i majstora tog stila. Brod manastirske crkve, podržan spiralnim stupovima, otkriva pokušaj ujedinjenja i izjednačavanja crkve, stil koji je dostigao svoj vrhunac u crkvi Mosteiro dos Jerónimos, završenog 1520. od strane arhitekte João de Castilho. Torra de Belém Tower Francisca de Arrude i prozor Manastira Hristovog Reda u Tomaru, su neki od najpoznatijih primjera manuelinskog stila i portugalske renesansne arhitekture kao cjeline.

Strogi renesansni klasicizam nije se mnogo proširio u portugalskoj renesansi, već se polako uspostavio od 1530-ih i nadalje, uz pomoć i stranaca i domaćih stanovnika, kao što su Francisco de Holanda i Diogo de Torralva. Isposnička ćelija Nossa Senhora da Conceição u Tomaru, Dioga de Torralve, je odličan primjer čiste renesansne klasične arhitekture iz portugalske renesanse. Neki primjeri snažne i čiste klasične renesanse su Miguel de Arrudin Igreja da Graça u Évori, Diogo de Arrudin Vojvodska palača Vila Viçosa u Vila Viçosa i manastir kralja D. Johna III, u Manastiru Hristovog Reda, arhitekata Dioga de Torralve i Filippa Terzija, koji se smatra jednim od najemblematičnijih djela portugalske renesanse. Quinta da Bacalhoa i Casa dos Bicos dobri su primjeri palača u snažnom renesansnom stilu, koje još uvijek imaju manuelinske tendencije.

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  Klasična strana portala Stara katedrala u Coimbri, João de Ruão
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  Fasada Crkve Nossa Senhora da Graça, Miguel de Arruda
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  Manuelinska fasada Manastira Santa Cruz, Diogo de Boitaca
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  Arkada Johna III, u Hristovom manastiru, Diogo de Torralva i Filippo Terzi
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  Klasična fasada Vojvodske palače Vila Viçosa, Diogo de Arruda
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  Fasada Crkve Nossa Senhora da Conceição Velha, Francisco Ferreira
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  Pokrivena arkada Mosteiro dos Jerónimos, Teodósio Frias i Diogo Vaz
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  Kuća Misericórdia, u Viana do Castelo, João Lopes

Slikarstvo

Vladavina Johna III, tokom koje je došlo do portugalskog monopola nad trgovinom začinima, omogućila je procvat portugalskog slikarstva.

Slikarstvo je bilo jedan od istaknutijih faktora portugalske renesanse, kao jedna od kontrastnijih umjetnosti u odnosu na druge renesanse u Evropi. Slikarstvo u portugalskoj renesansi većinom je bilo trijezno u gotovo isključivo religiozno, sličnije sjevernoj renesansi u svojoj prirodi, ne slijedivši raskoš i neumjerenost talijanske i španske renesanse.

Slikarstvo portugalske renesanse bilo je većinom u dodiru sa flamanskim stilom. Veze između ta dva pokreta dostigle su novi nivo 1430. godine sa vjenčanjem Isabele od Aviza, infante od Portugala sa Philipom III, vojvodom Burgundije. Iako je vjenčanje bilo predmet pregovora, burgundijski dvor poslao je slavnog Jana van Eycka da naslika portret Isabele od Aviza. Van Eyck je ostao u Portugalu čitavu godinu, gdje je osnovao školu umjetnosti, zajedno sa Olivierom de Gandom i Jeanom d'Ypresom. Iz ove škole potekla je Škola majstora Sé Katedrala Angra do Heroísmo, koju je posvojio Jácome de Bruges.

Nuno Gonçalves, autor Ploča svetog Vincenta, i dizajner tapestrija Pastrana, smatra se jednim od prethodnika portugalskih renesansnih slikara u Portugalu. Na svojim pločama, koje se smatraju nekim od najvažnijih djela slikane umjetnosti u historiji Portugala, on prikazuje istaknute ličnosti prtugalske vlastele, kraljeva i sveštenstva tog vremena suhim stilom, ali sa moćnim realizmom. Njegova posvećenost prikazivanju svake ličnosti individualno pokazuje snažan flamanski utjecaj i nagovještava kasnije renesansne brige.

Na početku 16. vijeka, razne slikarske škole bile su aktivne u čitavom Portugalu i njegovom carstvu, često u saradnji sa strancima. Čest trend među tim školama portugalske renesanse bilo je davanje priznanja za svoja djela školi i ostavljanje stvarnog autora anonimnim, zbog čega je teško pripisati autorstvo. Čak i među onim slikarima koji su dali svoja imena svojim djelima komplicirano je potvrditi potpunu validnost autorstva zbog običaja kolektivnog stvaranja djela. Poznat primjer bio je dvorski slikar Jorge Afonso, na čijim su djelima često radili njegovi kolege na dvoru, kao što su Frei Carlos, Francisco Henriques, Cristóvão de Figueiredo, Garcia Fernandes, Gregório Lopes i Jorge Leal, među ostalima. U Sjevernom Portugalu postojala je slična grupa, koja se fokusirala na Vasca Fernandesa, zajedno sa Gasparom Vazom i Fernãom de Anesom.

Tokom portugalske renesanse, najveći centar učenja i umjetnosti bio je Lisabon, koji je uspijevao kao veliki evropski grad zahvaljujući svojoj privilegovanoj poziciji velikog trgovačkog centra, otvorenog konstantnom prilivu novih informacija, kultura i finansija. Lisabon je bio stvaran centar evropske renesanse, gdje su se umjetnici i učenjaci iz drugih krajeva Evrope pokušavali obogatiti. Bogato lisabonsko plemstvo plaćalo je za bezbrojne slike, često ili za religijske institucije u Lisabonu ili za svoje feudalne posjede. Portugalski kraljevski dvor često se premiještao između Lisabona, Coimbre, prethodnog glavnog grada Portugala, i Évore, što je omogućilo ovim trima gradovima da postanu najveći centri portugalske renesanse. U Coimbri, Škola u Coimbri je osnovana od strane Vicenta Gila i njegovog sina, Manuela Vicenta. U Évori, Manuel I od Portugala osnovao je bogat dvor koji je svoj vrhunac dostigao tokom vladavine njegovog sina, kardinala infanta Henrique od Aviz, arhepiskopa Évore, koji je osnovao Univerzitet u Évori i njegovu umjetničku školu.

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  Dolazak relikvija u Madre de Deus, Cristóvão de Figueiredo i Garcia Fernandes
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  Portret kralja kardinala Henriquea I od Portugala, Škola u Évori
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  Palača Ribeira i Terreiro do Paço, Rodrigo Stoop
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  Portret João Manuel, princ Portugala, Antonio Moro
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  Sveti Petar na svom prijestolu, Vasco Fernandes
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  Portret Sebastiana I od Portugala, Cristóvão de Morais
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  Vjenčanje D. Manuela I, kao svetog Aleksija, i Marie od Aragona, kao njegove žene, Garcia Fernandes
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  Porodica kralja D. Manuela I kod Fons Vitae; Colijn de Coter

Sciences

Pedro Nunes was a great scientist of Europe, innovating maths and inventing many devices, such as the nonius.

As the pioneer in Age of Discovery, Portugal and its renaissance attracted experts in astronomy, mathematics, and naval technology, which made Portugal a technical and scientific capital of Europe. During the Portuguese Renaissance, there was a plethora of technical works being created, such as mappa mundi, globes, treatises on the art of sailing, scripts, reports of shipwrecks, itineraries, and studies on tropical medicine.

Among the treatises on astronomy, oceanography, and nautical studies, major works included the following:

• Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, 1506, Duarte Pacheco Pereira
• Treaty on the Sphere, 1537, Pedro Nunes
• Route Map of the Purple Sea, 1541, João de Castro
• Ars Nautica, 1555, Fernão de Oliveira
• Manuscript on the Production of Naus, 1580, Fernão de Oliveira

Pedro Nunes, one of the first Europeans to apply mathematics to cartography, discovered the concept of rhumb lines, later applied to the Mercator projection, which, in 1569, revolutionized cartography. He was also the inventor of several measuring apparatus, including the nonius, to measure fractions of a degree.

With Vasco da Gama's arrival in India, and the Portuguese Empire's expansion into that land, many scientists were sent eastward to study and compile new drugs and medicinal plants. The botonist Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on new plants and local medicines.

Cartography

Portuguese portolan chart were in great demand in Europe, for their greater knowledge and accuracy. Although protected as a state secret, the cartographic knowledge would eventually be passed clandestinely by some of those involved in the operation. One such example is the Cantino planisphere, which was stolen from the Casa da Índia, the Portuguese royal ministry for all things maritime, for the Duke of Ferrara in 1502, or the Dieppe maps, commissioned by Henry II of France and Henry VIII of England, which were copies of stolen Portuguese maps of the period.

In 1475, for the first time a Latin translation of Ptolemy's world map, from the second century, was printed. Portuguese exploration and studies soon revealed the gaps of ancient knowledge, such as how in 1488, passing the Cape of Good Hope, Bartolomeu Dias proved Ptolemy was erroneous in that there was no passage to the Indian Ocean.

In 1492, Martin Behaim, after his training in Portugal, and in service to the King of Portugal, built the first known globe, which had Europe and Asia were separated by a single ocean, a theory that Christopher Columbus, who was also trained in Portugal, would test later that year.

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  The 1502 Cantino planisphere was the Padrão Real made by the Casa da Índia
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  The 1574 map of the Captaincy Colonies of Brazil, by Luís Teixeira
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  The 1584 Açores Insulae map of the Azores Islands, by Luís Teixeira
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  The 1575 map of Portugal and its African colonies, by Sebastião Lopes
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  The 1554 map showing the global Portuguese Empire, by Lopo Homem
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  The 1563 map of the North Atlantic Portuguese Empire, by Lazaro Luis
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  The 1504 map of North Africa and Europe, by Pedro Reinel
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  The 1583 map of global European empires, by Sebastião Lopes

Humanities

In Portugal, as in the rest of Europe, the printing press played a key role in its Renaissance. The first printing presses came to Portugal by the hand of Jewish printers via Italy. The first book printed in Portuguese in Portugal was the Sacramental, printed in Chaves, in 1488, by Clemente Sanches de Vercial. By 1490, books were being printed in Lisbon, Porto, and Braga. Because of the new access to mass production of language and literature pieces, the Portuguese Renaissance saw a great flourishment for written work, from treatises to theatre, as well as the advancement and sophistication of the Portuguese language. Because of Portugal's key place in global relations, at the time, literary works of the Portuguese Renaissance influenced a great deal of foreign literary movements and linguistic studies.

Language

João de Barros was a true man of the Portuguese Renaissance, having been a military man, historian, and grammaticist.

The Portuguese Renaissance produced a plethora of poets, historians, critics, theologians, and moralists, of whom the Portuguese Renaissance was their golden age. Language was one of the purest parts of the Portuguese Renaissance, due to the large number of erudite words imported from classical Latin and ancient Greek, which greatly increased the complexity of the Portuguese language. The sixteenth century Cancioneiro Geral, by Garcia de Resende, is often agreed upon to mark the end of Old Portuguese and the beginning of Modern Portuguese.

The standardization of the Portuguese language started in 1536, when Fernão de Oliveira published his Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa, the first literary piece that laid rules and standards for the Portuguese language. In 1540, João de Barros, a distinguished officer of the Portuguese crown, published the Grammatica da Língua Portuguesa com os Mandamentos da Santa Madre Igreja, which taught the standards of the Portuguese language alongside the morals and culture of the Portuguese people. João de Barros's Grammatica was the second piece that sought to standardize the Portuguese language, and is considered the world's first illustrated text book.

The great interest in philology, during the Portuguese Renaissance, spread the use of etymological spellings, creating Portuguese words through justification of their Latin roots. The 1576 Orthographia da lingoa portuguesa, by Duarte Nunes de Leão, a great pioneer in the study of Portuguese orthography, was one of the major works in support for the greater Latinisation of the Portuguese language. The printing press was key in the expansion of the Portuguese language, allowing new spellings, words, and grammar to be seen by most Portuguese speakers.

Due to the success of the Portuguese Empire, and the padroado of the Portuguese missionary efforts, the Portuguese language came to be known as the "Christian language" in many parts of Asia. In concordance with the principles of the Portuguese Renaissance, many schools of learning and colleges were founded throughout Portugal and its empire.

It was the scholars of the Portuguese Renaissance that compiled some of the first interlingua dictionaries and literary works, able to do so because of the great distribution of the Portuguese Empire. These dictionaries were often the first linguistic interactions Europeans had to these far east cultures, such as the 1580 Chinese-Portuguese Dictionary, by Miguel Ruggeiro and Mateus Rigo, the 1603 Nippo Jisho Japanese-Portuguese Dictionary, by João Rodrigues, and the 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum Portuguese-Latin-Vietnamese Dictionary, by Alexandre de Rhodes.

Because of the great prestige and importance of the Portuguese Renaissance on nautical studies and sciences, most explorers of the time studied in Portugal and carried the Portuguese language to newly discovered lands. Many Portuguese words have entered the lexicon of other languages, such as sepatu, shoe in Indonesian, from the Portuguese sapato, Keju, cheese in Malay, from the Portuguese queijo, meza, table in Swahili, from the Portuguese mesa, and botan, buton, from botão, kappa, cover, from capa, and from the various Japanese words of Portuguese origin. Simultaneously, following the expansionist and knowledge seeking nature of the Portuguese Renaissance, the Portuguese language imported many words from foreign idioms, such as cachimbo, meaning pipe, from the Kimbundu kixima, and algodão, meaning cotton, from the Arabic al-qutun.

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  The 1516 Cancioneiro Geral, by Garcia de Resende
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  The 1540 Grammatica da Língua Portuguesa com os Mandamentos da Santa Madre Igreja, by João de Barros
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  The 1583 Portuguese-Chinese Dictionary, by Miguel Ruggeiro and Mateus Rigo
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  The 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum, by Alexandre de Rhodes
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  The 1536 Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa, by Fernão de Oliveira
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  The 1554 Livro das Obras de Garcia de Resende, by Garcia de Resende
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  The 1576 Orthographia da lingoa portuguesa, by Duarte Nunes de Leão
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  The 1540 Grammatica da Língua Portuguesa com os Mandamentos da Santa Madre Igreja, by João de Barros

Literature

Luís de Camões's contributions to the Portuguese language are so great that it is often dubbed the Language of Camões.

The Portuguese Renaissance was a golden age for literary works in Portugal. The abundance of funds and interest lead to the creation of some of the best known pieces of the Portuguese language. Because of Portugal's importance during the Age of Discovery and strategic location as a waypoint between Europe and the rest of the world, many of these literary works were able to circulate outside of Portugal and achieve popularity throughout Europe.

In 1516, Garcia de Resende published the Cancioneiro General, which contained more than two hundred separate literary works, of various authors, from the reigns of D. Afonso V and D. John II. Among the various authors represented in the Cancioneiro Geral, Francisco de Sá de Miranda, Gil Vicente, and Bernardim Ribeiro were the most important and famous authors to the literary scene of the Portuguese Renaissance. Sá de Miranda was crucial to the internationalization of the literary works of the Portuguese Renaissance. After returning from his studies abroad, in 1526, Sá de Miranda introduced new forms of literary expression to Portugal, like the sonnet and the sestina. From 1502 until 1536, Gil Vicente wrote and staged forty one pieces of drama, both in Portuguese and Castilian, including mysteries, farces, comedies, and tragedies, which would earn him a space in history as the "Father of Iberian drama". Bernardim Ribeiro introduced the Pastoral novel to the Iberian Peninsula with his 1554 Menina e Moça, alongside the eclogues of Cristóvão Falcão.

From the Portuguese Renaissance, there was no greater writer than Luís de Camões, whose treasured works have nicknamed the Portuguese language as the Language of Camões. Camões was instrumental in reintroducing classical forms of literature, most importantly the epic, through his 1572 masterpiece, Os Lusíadas, considered one of the greatest pieces of Portuguese literature from all time.

During the Portuguese Renaissance, chivalric romances were a literary phenomenon of the Iberian Peninsula, and of Europe as a whole, to a lesser extent. These novels based themselves on the idealization of mediaeval chivalric codes, and were filled with princes and princesses, knights and damsels, and almost always had a Christian moral. This type of novel was best personified in the 1508 version of João de Lobeira's Amadis de Gaula by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, the 1541 Cronica do famoso e muito esforçado cavalleiro Palmeirim d´Inglaterra by Francisco de Moraes, and the 1522 Crónica do Imperador Clarimundo, by João de Barros.

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  The 1572 Os Lusíadas, by Luís de Camões
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  The 1517 Auto da Barca do Inferno, by Gil Vicente
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  The 1675 Europa Portuguesa, by Manuel de Faria e Sousa
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  The 1569 Tratado das Cousas da China, by Gaspar da Cruz
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  The 1562 Compilaçam de Todalas Obras, by Gil Vicente
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  The 1679 Sermões, by António Vieira
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  The 1665 Obras Métricas, by Francisco Manuel de Mello
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  The 1614 Peregrinação, by Fernão Mendes Pinto

External links

Renesansa u Škotskoj na Wikimedijinoj ostavi

• Portugal and Renaissance Europe
• The Portuguese Renaissance