Renesansa u Škotskoj

Također uraditi:German Renaissance, Renaissance in the Low Countries, Renaissance in Poland, Italian Renaissance, Portuguese Renaissance, Mid-Tudor Crisis, 19th-century London, History of London (1900–39)

Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I (reigned: 1493–1519), the first Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire, by Albrecht Dürer, 1519

First page of the first volume of a copy of the Gutenberg Bible in Texas

Njemačka renesansa, dio sjeverne renesanse, bila je kulturološki i umjetnički pokret koji se proširio među njemačkim misliocima u 15. i 16. vijeku i koji se razvio iz talijanske renesanse. Mnoga područja umjetnosti i nauka bila su pod utjecajem, prije svega širenjem renesansnog humanizma u razne njemačke države i kneževine. Napravljeni su mnogi koraci naprijed u područjima arhitekture, umjetnosti i nauka. Njemačka je dovela do dvije pojave koje su dominirale 16. vijekom u čitavoj Evropi: štamparstvo i protestantsku reformaciju.

Jedan od najvažnijih njemačkih humanista bio je Konrad Celtis (1459–1508). Celtis je studirao u Kelnu i Heidelbergu, a kasnije je putovao čitavom Italijom prikupljajući latinske i grčke rukopise. Pod velikim utjecajem Tacita, koristio je knjigu Germania kako bi uveo njemačku historiju i geografiju. Na kraju je posvetio svoje vrijeme poeziji, gdje je hvalio Njemačku na latinskom jeziku. Još jedna važna ličnost bio je Johann Reuchlin (1455–1522) koji je studirao na različitim mjestima u Italiji i kasnije podučavao grčki jezik. Studirao je hebrejski jezik, sa ciljem da pročisti kršćanstvo, ali je naišao na protivljenje crkve.

Najvažniji umjetnik njemačke renesanse je Albrecht Dürer, naročito poznat po svojoj štampi u drvorezu i gravuri, koja se proširila čitavom Evropom, crtežima i slikanim portretima. U važnu arhitekturu iz ovog perioda spadaju Landshut Residence, Heidelberg Castle, Augsburg Town Hall kao i Antiquarium od Munich Residenz, najveća renesansna dvorana sjeverno od Alpa.Šablon:Circular reference

Pozadina

Renesansa je većinom vođena obnovljenim interesom za klasično učenje i također je bila rezultat brzog ekonomskog razvoja. Na početku 16. vijeka, Njemačka (što se odnosi na zemlje sadržane unutar Svetog Rimskog Carstva) je bila jedno od najprosperitetnijih područja u Evropi unatoč relativno niskom nivou urbanizacije u usporedbi sa Italijom i Nizozemskom.Šablon:Full Imala je koristi od bogatstva određenih sektora poput metalurgije, rudarstva, bankarstva i tekstila. Još važnije, štampanje knjiga razvilo se u Njemačkoj i njemački štampači dominirali su novom trgovinom knjigama u većini drugih država do duboko u 16. vijeku.

Umjetnost

The Heller altar by Albrecht Dürer

The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Classical ornament had little historical resonance in much of Germany, but in other respects Germany was very quick to follow developments, especially in adopting printing with movable type, a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans.

Printmaking by woodcut and engraving was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than elsewhere in Europe, and the Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations, typically of a relatively low artistic standard, but seen all over Europe, with the woodblocks often being lent to printers of editions in other cities or languages. The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer, began his career as an apprentice to a leading workshop in Nuremberg, that of Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abandoned his painting to exploit the new medium. Dürer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe's largest printer-publisher at the time.

After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Dürer travelled in Germany for four years, and Italy for a few months, before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings, while also painting. Though retaining a distinctively German style, his work shows strong Italian influence, and is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art, which for the next forty years replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Dürer supported Martin Luther but continued to create Madonnas and other Catholic imagery, and paint portraits of leaders on both sides of the emerging split of the Protestant Reformation.

The Crucifixion, central panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald.

Dürer died in 1528, before it was clear that the split of the Reformation had become permanent, but his pupils of the following generation were unable to avoid taking sides. Most leading German artists became Protestants, but this deprived them of painting most religious works, previously the mainstay of artists' revenue. Martin Luther had objected to much Catholic imagery, but not to imagery itself, and Lucas Cranach the Elder, a close friend of Luther, had painted a number of "Lutheran altarpieces", mostly showing the Last Supper, some with portraits of the leading Protestant divines as the Twelve Apostles. This phase of Lutheran art was over before 1550, probably under the more fiercely aniconic influence of Calvinism, and religious works for public display virtually ceased to be produced in Protestant areas. Presumably largely because of this, the development of German art had virtually ceased by about 1550, but in the preceding decades German artists had been very fertile in developing alternative subjects to replace the gap in their order books. Cranach, apart from portraits, developed a format of thin vertical portraits of provocative nudes, given classical or Biblical titles.

Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grünewald, who left very few works, but whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece (completed 1515), has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. It is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance compositional principles, but all in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych.

Albrecht Altdorfer (c.1480–1538), Danube landscape near Regensburg c. 1528, one of the earliest Western pure landscapes, from the Danube School in southern Germany.

The Danube School is the name of a circle of artists of the first third of the 16th century in Bavaria and Austria, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber and Augustin Hirschvogel. With Altdorfer in the lead, the school produced the first examples of independent landscape art in the West (nearly 1,000 years after China), in both paintings and prints. Their religious paintings had an expressionist style somewhat similar to Grünewald's. Dürer's pupils Hans Burgkmair and Hans Baldung Grien worked largely in prints, with Baldung developing the topical subject matter of witches in a number of enigmatic prints.

Hans Holbein the Elder and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in the late Gothic style. Hans the Elder was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. His son, Hans Holbein the Younger was an important painter of portraits and a few religious works, working mainly in England and Switzerland. Holbein's well known series of small woodcuts on the Dance of Death relate to the works of the Little Masters, a group of printmakers who specialized in very small and highly detailed engravings for bourgeois collectors, including many erotic subjects.

The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by several decades with a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art, other than accomplished portraits that never rival the achievement of Holbein or Dürer. The next significant German artists worked in the rather artificial style of Northern Mannerism, which they had to learn in Italy or Flanders. Hans von Aachen and the Netherlandish Bartholomeus Spranger were the leading painters at the Imperial courts in Vienna and Prague, and the productive Netherlandish Sadeler family of engravers spread out across Germany, among other counties.

In Catholic parts of South Germany the Gothic tradition of wood carving continued to flourish until the end of the 18th century, adapting to changes in style through the centuries. Veit Stoss (d. 1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (d.1531) and Peter Vischer the Elder (d. 1529) were Dürer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles.

Arhitektura

Heidelberg Castle

Juleum in Helmstedt (built 1592), an example of Weser Renaissance architecture

Renaissance Architecture in Germany was inspired first by German philosophers and artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Johannes Reuchlin who visited Italy. Important early examples of this period are especially the Landshut Residence, the Castle in Heidelberg, Johannisburg Palace in Aschaffenburg, Schloss Weilburg, the City Hall and Fugger Houses in Augsburg and St. Michael in Munich, the largest Renaissance church north of the Alps.

A particular form of Renaissance architecture in Germany is the Weser Renaissance, with prominent examples such as the City Hall of Bremen and the Juleum in Helmstedt.

In July 1567 the city council of Cologne approved a design in the Renaissance style by Wilhelm Vernukken for a two storied loggia for Cologne City Hall. St Michael in Munich is the largest Renaissance church north of the Alps. It was built by Duke William V of Bavaria between 1583 and 1597 as a spiritual center for the Counter Reformation and was inspired by the Church of il Gesù in Rome. The architect is unknown. Many examples of Brick Renaissance buildings can be found in Hanseatic old towns, such as Stralsund, Wismar, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Friedrichstadt and Stade. Notable German Renaissance architects include Friedrich Sustris, Benedikt Rejt, Abraham van den Blocke, Elias Holl and Hans Krumpper.

Utjecajni ljudi

Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398–1468)

Rođen kao Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden, Johannes Gutenberg se naširoko smatra najutjecajnijom osobom u njemačkoj renesansi. Kao slobodni mislilac, humanista i izumitelj, Gutenberg je također odrastao u renesansi, ali je i snažno utjecao na nju. Njegov najpoznatiji izum je štamparska mašina iz 1440. godine. Gutenbergova mašina omogućila je humanistima, reformistima i ostalima da šire svoje ideje. Također je poznat i kao stvoritelj Gutenberg Bible, ključnog djela koje je označilo početak "Gutenbergove revolucije" i doba štampane knjige u zapadnom svijetu.

Johann Reuchlin (1455–1522)

Johann Reuchlin bio je svojedobno najvažniji aspekt podučavanja o svjetskoj kulturi u Njemačkoj. Bio je poznavalac i njemačkog i hebrejskog jezika. Poslije diplomiranja podučavao je u Baselu, te je smatran izuzetno inteligentnim. Ipak, nakon što je napustio Basel, morao je početi kopirati rukopise i naukovati unutar pojedinih područja prava. Međutim, najpoznatiji je po svom radu unutar istraživanja hebrejskog jezika. Za razliku od nekih drugih "mislilaca" svog vremena, Reuchlin se udubio u tu materiju i čak stvorio vodič za propovijedanje unutar hebrejske vjere. Ta knjiga, zvana De Arte Predicandi (1503), moguće je jedno od njegovih najpoznatijih djela iz tog perioda.

Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)

Albrecht Dürer bio je u to doba, te je i ostao, najpoznatiji umjetnik njemačke renesanse. Bio je poznat širom Evrope, te veoma cijenjen u Italiji, gdje je njegov rad bio poznat uglavnom kroz njegovu štampu. Uspješno je integrirao složen sjevernjački stil sa renesansnom harmonijom i monunmentalnošću. Među njegovim najpoznatijim djelima su Melencolia I, Četiri jahača iz njegovog drvorezne serije Apokalipsa, te Vitez, Smrt i Vrag. Drugi značajni umjetnici bili su Lucas Cranach the Elder, Danube School i Little Masters.

Martin Luther (1483–1546)

Martin Luther je bio protestantski reformator koji je kritizirao crkvene prakse poput prodavanja indulgencija, protiv kojih je pisao u svojih Devedeset pet teza 1517. godine. Luther je također preveo Bibliju na njemački jezik, učinivši kršćanske spise dostupnijima općoj populaciji i nadahnuvši standardizaciju njemačkog jezika.

Povezano

• Renesansni humanizam u Sjevernoj Evropi

Reference

Izvori

• Bartrum, Giulia (1995); German Renaissance Prints, 1490–1550; British Museum Press, 1995, ISBN 0-7141-2604-7
• Bartrum, Giulia (2002), Albrecht Dürer and his legacy: the graphic work of a Renaissance artist, British Museum Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-7141-2633-3
• Michael Levey, Painting at Court, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1971
• Snyder, James; Northern Renaissance Art, 1985, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0-13-623596-4
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517–1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-6
• Wood, Christopher S. Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London, ISBN 0-948462-46-9

Dalje čitanje

• O'Neill, John P., ur. (1987). The Renaissance in the North. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-434-4. OCLC 893699130. 

Vanjske poveznice

Renesansa u Škotskoj na Wikimedijinoj ostavi